Method

This study involves a literature review conducted based on scholarly peer-reviewed journals. The principal theme is to explore relevant content in discourses concerning how entrepreneurship education contributes to entrepreneurial professional identity in the current changing business environment. Primarily based on two databases – “EBSCOhost” and “ProQuest” – the following keywords were used in searches: “identity”, “entrepreneurship education” and “cross culture/cross-culture”. The publication date was limited to the 10 years from 2004 to 2014. Only papers with full text are selected, and the language was limited to English. Therefore, after removing duplicates, 29 articles (11 from “EBSCOhost” and 18 from “ProQuest”) were downloaded for further assessment by reading each abstract. However, the quality of these varies considerably, and the main topics in most of them do not quite match entrepreneurship education. Only four to some extent qualified to be advanced in the subsequent analysis process, which is inadequate for ameliorating a literature review. The selection criteria were therefore modified by redefining the keywords respectively for each database in order to achieve an appropriate number of articles. Meanwhile, in-depth scrutinization is needed to control the substance in the sample articles. Ultimately, 28 papers were targeted after continuous trials on determining the boundaries of keywords and publication titles (by which, the search mode can be seen in Table 10.1). In addition, before importing the 28-article sample into the ATLAS.ti software tool, further clarification of the main findings in each paper was necessary to facilitate code-generation and articulation in the software-adoption process (see Table 10.2).

The list of articles is presented as follows in Table 10.2.

Study findings

The literature was examined under a thematic content analysis using ATLAS.ti in which discourses related to keywords such as “entrepreneurship education”, “identity” and “cross culture” were summarized into 11 codes. In order to achieve a comprehensive understanding, they are categorized into 2 code groups (Seen Table 10.3). Relevant direct quotations with discussions will be exemplified in the following section. Systematic thinking patterns and iterative articulating capabilities are needed during this qualitative process of the analysis.

We now present each of the codes and discuss central issues within it. Reference is made to the article in hand during the presentation.

Code: Entrepreneurship education in general

Researchers attempt to conduct an in-depth analysis of entrepreneurship education (e.g. its definition, course contents, teaching and learning objectives), although there is a lack of significant research on entrepreneurship education programs and their connections to the entrepreneurship point of view. 1,  2 Both the amount and quality of entrepreneurship study needs to be improved providing that “…importance of entrepreneurship as an important study in colleges of business and engineering schools…university education had a significant role in student careers in entrepreneurial pursuits and kickstarting new ventures after their graduation…” 3. Therefore, not only from a theory-based but also an empirical perspective, entrepreneurship education strengthens student entrepreneurial-related knowledge and skills. The relevant programs and curricula required should be developed with two inherent factors, namely the transmission of information/value from teachers to students and the influence of peers 4. Besides the knowledge and information flow, entrepreneurship education is defined as a process which increases the cognitive knowledge base in entrepreneurship and practically develops entrepreneurial or enterprising skills in students or pupils through discovering new opportunities and mastering venture creation processes 5, 6. To transfer the knowledge and to facilitate its progress form the central goals for the school; learners are taught firstly by taking an academic look at entrepreneurship, secondly by enhancing opportunity-identification and exploration abilities, and finally by putting these capabilities into practice. In other words, the aim is to further students’ intentions and motivation to be entrepreneurs or embark on an entrepreneurial occupation, meaning “the desirability (the desire to launch an entrepreneurial career)…and the feasibility (possessing the necessary skills and knowledge to create and manage a company) of entrepreneurship” 7.

In reference 8, reflective and active modes of teaching are demonstrated, which can be introduced as two meaningful divisions in entrepreneurship education.

Code: Identity reflected in entrepreneurship education

From entrepreneurial identity as a general point of view

Identity can be manifested and simultaneously externalized through entrepreneurship education. 10, 11,  12 On the basis of people’s social interactions 13, their identities are cultivated from experience, education, and networks of social relationships 14. Meanwhile, an enterprise is seen as an appropriate venue for a person to develop his/her identity. 15, 16

Identity embodies a process of self-identifying, which may include dynamics and changes throughout a specific period. The main aim is to elaborate identity work, which refers to the way people position themselves in discourse, how they attach themselves to certain issues, use and combine texts and materials to articulate and give meanings for themselves and their actions  18 which is further explained in reference 19:

Entrepreneurship education as a promising identity workspace

In this section, entrepreneurship education is figured as a typical locus for developing identities from both a general social viewpoint and in the context of a business school. Generally, entrepreneurship education is “a part of the societal production of an order of meaning that transforms to pedagogic communication and practice in educational settings…about a moral creation of order, relations and identity...”  22 In particular, entrepreneurial identity will to some extent be conceptualized in school through learning and in society through network building.  23 Both of these processes are linked to educational goals – “storing particular potential entrepreneurial futures and the result of this joint interaction of actors has a variety of economic, educational and social impacts” and implying “discourse about entrepreneurship to which local pupils have been exposed all their lives…a framework for them to perform these identities...”  24 Therefore, educational entrepreneurship settings serve as an intersection, joining students and other relevant participants in order to learn from one another and obtain certain useful entrepreneurial experience.

Code: Cultural factors reflected in entrepreneurship education

General point of view

Entrepreneurship education will reflect features from different cultural backgrounds, and at the same time is influenced by culture. In reference 26, culture is depicted as a contributor that moderates the relationship between entrepreneurship education and entrepreneurial intentions. A definition has been introduced where culture is defined as the values, beliefs and assumptions learned in early childhood that distinguish one group of people from another. Furthermore, there are four cultural dimensions (incl. “power distance, in-group collectivism, gender egalitarianism/societal gender inequality, and uncertainty avoidance/perception of uncertainty” 27) which will exert a certain impact on students’ entrepreneurial minds and future behaviors. For example,

In the following section, cultural factors will be illustrated based on three perspectives – from a micro to a macro way of understanding – national, regional and global perspectives.

National perspective

Entrepreneurship education involves bridging knowledge and skills with a formation of certain beliefs, values and attitudes 29, 30, and to set the objective of letting students choose entrepreneurship as an attractive and real alternative 31. This process has also been presented in a nation’s culture as:

Students’ attitudes towards entrepreneurship can be distinctively elaborated in entrepreneurship education across different nations 33, 34, 35:

“Entrepreneurship education should vary nation by nation…across national cultures 37, 38…there are significant differences among the American, Asian and European students…in entrepreneurial intentions and dispositions as well as motivations and perceived barriers to business startup…” 39

Still, an entrepreneurial culture can be thus nurtured through a national culture, and entrepreneurship education may be even more important in nations where the entrepreneurial culture is under-developed compared to countries where the entrepreneurial culture is well established 41.

Regional perspective

The regional context including the regional infrastructure 42), as a more broadened factor, will have various impacts on entrepreneurship education, and in terms of educational objectives, outcomes, and resources on cultures in school entrepreneurship programs 43). 44, 45Therefore, this factor has been named “regionality” 46, and will shape local narratives of entrepreneurial identities and careers  47 into different features and diverse structures throughout regions.

There are two categories classifying regions, namely levels of development  48 and degree of entrepreneurial activity 49, which may vary divergently in accordance with entrepreneurship education.

Level of development:

Degree of entrepreneurial activity:

Meanwhile, the degree of entrepreneurship education and entrepreneurial activity contribute to mutually influential conditions:

Global perspective

Recently, globalization is considered a megatrend, which signifies the growing interdependence of nations in terms of manifold facets, including economic, cultural, political and intellectual institutions.  53 At the same time, this brings about changes in social, political and cultural spheres – “namely homogenization, polarization, and hybridization” respectively.  54 Convergence is the long-term objective; however, divergence symbolizes an indispensable constituent. Hence, it is also highlighted as in 55:

Furthermore, the process of globalizing also leads entrepreneurship education with such changes through both visible and invisible factors (visible elements of the culture such as language, dress, ethnic differences, etc….invisible elements such as values, attitudes, traditions, etc…to sensitize the students to differences in cultures... 57).

Both convergence and divergence also remain in the development of education surrounded by the knowledge society. They are not contradictory poles, but rather coexist in certain respects. Internationalization will provide more opportunities for students to attain multidimensional knowledge and skills; interaction among different cultures can solidify particular practical questions and issues.

Code: Future research

There are five perspectives concerning the future analysis of entrepreneurship education including in terms of theory, culture, identity, context, and other perspectives. Some of the points are consistent with discussions as previously described. Direct quotations are listed and assigned to similar themes.

Theory:

Practice-based theory:

Culture-based theory:

Entrepreneurial intention:

Empirical literatures:

Culture:

Boundaries of entrepreneurship:

Identity:

The definition and range of identity:

Context:

Social and regional contexts:

Organizational contexts:

Other themes:

Initial process of being an entrepreneur:

Necessity for establishing a procedure of assessments:

Code: Suggestions for improving entrepreneurship education

Entrepreneurial knowledge and Skills

Entrepreneurial knowledge and skills  70 should firstly be considered as essential for evaluating the effects of entrepreneurship education 71, as students’ entrepreneurial intentions  72 can be positively directed and enhanced during the learning process. For instance, the entrepreneurial skills entailed in the workplace can be seen in reference  73 – creative and innovative problem solving, independent thinking, opportunity recognition and exploitation, readiness for change, risk-taking and self-confidence.

At the same time, modes for advancing new learning experiments and experimenting are at the core of entrepreneurship education 74. By familiarizing students with the narratives of how entrepreneurial actors have created new artifacts called New Ends, and then providing students with the kinds of tools referred to New Means, such as language, social skills, and behavioral models 75, will eventually progress a clear awareness of entrepreneurial experiences and learners will begin to see themselves as entrepreneurial actors in their own right, creating new “Re-storied” selves and new entrepreneurial identities.  76 A similar outcome can also be approached if students can be successfully endowed with an entrepreneurial culture and if their learning is experiential and problem based 77, 78. Proper problem-based learning capabilities will allow students to behave and act according to themselves and real-world situations, and create new knowledge rather than consume established knowledge 79. This is different from normal classroom-based learning 80.

Moreover, training interventions (SEEC securing, expanding, exposing and challenging) and simulations (contingency-based business planning) 81,  82 can be utilized for students to gain high-quality learning experiences 83. It is beneficial for them to possess an appropriate level of confidence and flexibility towards the changing external environment. In addition, other themes that cannot be ignored are developing trust, creating proactive collaboration, friendships and networks  84 as well as team-based learning in business courses to enhance learning and increase the necessary team-working skills of students 85.

Contextual factors

The environment contributes as a crucial influential factor in entrepreneurial education, as cultural factors reflected in entrepreneurship education have been highlighted in the previous section from various different perspectives.

Pedagogical perspective

Generally, entrepreneurship as a discipline is mature 90, which means that entrepreneurship can be developed by embarking on a system of curricula and programs with the inclusion of different people, different ideas, and new mixes of rigor and insight 91. A resource-based view is also necessary, which means that both human and social-network resources can be structured in a well-organized manner.

The regional context and environmental changes will pose an indispensable reference supporting entrepreneurial learning in schools. 93, 94

Considering the process and teaching methods, a rather flexible course framework should be launched by embracing the enhancement of both managerial and communication skills. 96,  97 A “cross-curricular”  98 design can be applied for motivating students to act based on “playing games or running companies” 99. A camp model can be taken as a typical example, as emphasized in references 100, 101. In particular, this suggests a creative way of teaching and learning. A new environment is identified and new group members are introduced.

Conventional pedagogy has been changed from a transferring process based on existing knowledge to a problem-solving format regarding real-life circumstances. The students’ own ideas about being entrepreneurs or establishing business plans are placed at the central point. This will not be judged using normal academic criteria. They will achieve their learning goals not only from knowledge exchange via teachers or instructors, but also from experience exchange by themselves as practitioners.

Simultaneously, another way has also been noticed that combines academic learning schemes and future-oriented entrepreneurial skills.

Undoubtedly, the pedagogical process of entrepreneurship is a mutually beneficial approach to education. The role of the students is the focus; their future career is the objective and it realizes entrepreneurial knowledge and skills in practice. To learn from their manner of learning can also provide useful catalogues for educators so as to consider how to improve education itself.

Code: Entrepreneurship education for SMEs

The SME owners, who are noticeably considered to be learning from their experiences 106, also require interaction and engagement of collaboration with the HEI (Higher Education Institution). Both sides (HEI and SME) need to collaborate and create a dialogue in order to stay competitive 107. A smooth and frequent knowledge flow between them will create a bridge linking universities and businesses, in other words, a connection between theories and practices; this bilateral interaction will eventually provide beneficial support for organizational growth in SMEs. Meanwhile, SMEs are able to supply universities with necessary funding opportunities. Hence, they are mutually indispensable in stimulating and sustaining  108 each other, which definitely demands an emphasis on entrepreneurship education of and for SMEs.

Code: Europeanization

To achieve a European model of culture and identity

Europeanization refers to a kind of cultural strategy  109 aiming to achieve a common identity  110 through multilateral associations among national or regional states in Europe. Such a European identity, symbolized as an exceptional source of development, progress and culture 111), can be further enhanced by integrating education into this system, which will intensify the progress concerning cultural collaboration and ultimately the creation of a new language of identity 112.

Europeanizing education

Education in the European arena is increasingly regarded as important as a factor for stimulating a Europeanizing model of culture and identity. The gradual construction of an open and dynamic European educational area is the goal of cooperation through Erasmus and other exchange programs 113, will furnish this Europeanizing process with various emergent opportunities for establishing an “imagined community” 114. However, it is also seen that the development of intensive cross-area sociocultural membership may somehow be in conflict with the far-reaching process of globalization. A wide area-based transfer of knowledge might be in some way constrained by specific cultural variables 115.

Furthermore, the knowledge economy  116 is becoming vital in the contemporary world, and this also demands an appropriate adaptation from education in Europe. Competences and skills that are used flexibly, including those in the fields of information technology, foreign languages, technological culture, and entrepreneurship and social skills, are needed for attaining lifelong learning goals 117. One of the most significant demands is to optimize educational policies through strengthening “international comparability…cross-institutional collaboration…documentation and statistics for the recognition of qualifications…and for key organizations” 118. Therefore, the globalizing factor cannot be neglected in Europeanizing education; Europeanization is an organic part of globalization and globalization is the background framework for Europeanization.

Code: Social entrepreneurship education in general

Empirical research into social entrepreneurship (SE) education, especially the competencies required, remains scarce. Alongside the rising demand for social entrepreneurship coursework 119, two groups of perspectives emerge that contain trait-oriented or personal attribute views and behavioral competencies 120. In fact, competencies concerning not only a person’s knowledge and capabilities, but also disposition are considered necessary for organizational performance by social entrepreneurship stakeholders, including social enterprise owners, founders, managers and funders 121). Social entrepreneurship education is therefore defined as a hybrid set of knowledge and skills grounded in and a reflection of personal and organizational values, ethics, and attitudes 122. Meanwhile, in a literal sense, social entrepreneurship is inherently associated with the assessment of stakeholders and other practitioners as well as factors within the external context. Social entrepreneurship education in this way can be understood as a process through which aspiring social entrepreneurs become ‘trilingual’ students  123 mastering such behavioral skills of bridging competing social-welfare, commercial and public-sector rationales 124.

To ensure that students are able to transfer their competencies to the workplace effectively for the task or job at hand is also in line with educators’ targets 126.

Code: Identity reflected in social entrepreneurship education

From social entrepreneurs’ points of view

When social entrepreneurs identify themselves as learners in a learning community, the business and social environment will be naturally combined in regard to their intentions and status in society.

Learning itself is integrated with social events, as learning for a social entrepreneur is more likely to be associated with communities of practice related to their social aims and values 128. Indeed, social image and value are highlighted and they might find it difficult to adjust to certain business school programs provided that teaching is primarily based on pure business planning and wealth-accumulation.

From the students’ points of view

In designing the social entrepreneurship curriculum in a school, students should be offered certain opportunities upon recognition of identity work. 129,  130 The ultimate learning objective is to assimilate the learners into the social world in which they will be actively involved as a member. Hence, identity work has been delineated as a set of active processes that serve to construct, strengthen, and revise one's conception of and commitment to a particular identity (whether in the personal or professional realm) 131. The first step is to motivate students to develop desires consistent with that social identity and to make a positive contribution to society.” 132

After their social consciousness is affirmatively initiated, the reasonable formulation of a plan can be engaged. However, it is anticipated that students should use their practical capabilities – to find the right way to solve real-world problems instead of learning a vague idea for theorizing business proposals. Therefore, besides building on the emotional, concrete environmental conditions need to be taken into account because social entrepreneurship is socially oriented and socially targeted.

Code: Environmental factor (national context) reflected in social entrepreneurship education

National contextual factors cannot fully determine the design or launching of social entrepreneurship education. Nevertheless, “the degree to which the social entrepreneurship sector is dependent upon three institutional logics (incl. ‘social-welfare, commercial and public-sector logics’)”  135 deviates in some countries. As exemplified,

In addition, other logics such as the “community logic or religious logics”  137 may also exert a significant influence on students’ social-venture plans based on their profiles and environmental elements. Hence, educators should modify social entrepreneurship coursework and programs to be consistent with “the socialization into a given logic depending on the degree to which the sector is dependent upon this logic for social or material support” 138.

Code: Suggestions for improving social entrepreneurship education

Social entrepreneurship programs should be built on certain principles among students nurturing familiarity, positive relations, and trust 139, and targeted at nourishing their psychological safety and committed learning identities 140. In this sense, positive social outcomes and fluent communication with public-sector stakeholders will ultimately be fabricated instead of a detachment from social value and social-network creation. 141, 142

In order to increase the effectiveness of teaching, one of the fundamentals is to recognize needs from the marketplace and try to improve student skills that will be applied within their career path. (“…being more responsive to stakeholders, particularly practitioners…” 143; “…incorporate multiple logic-building skills – ‘social-welfare, commercial and public-sector logics’ – to those that mainly focus on providing social-venture and social opportunity-specific knowledge...” 144)

During the learning process, students should learn how to be able to forge a clear sense of self-efficacy and the confidence necessary to combat the growing pervasiveness of the world's social ills 145. The remaining task for educators is to establish a framework comprising of identity-and value-stimulating schemes aimed at aiding students in defining the social category, identifying prototypical members and their characteristics, and encouraging active engagement through modeling vicarious learning using social persuasion and providing mastery experiences 146.