As Lippmann was writing propaganda, Harold Lasswell was undertaking empirical analyses of propaganda. In fact, much of the propaganda that Lasswell was examining was actually being written by Lippmann himself (Rogers, 1994).
Harold Lasswell (1902-1978) was a prominent scholar in the area of propaganda research. He focused on conducting both quantitative and qualitative analyses of propaganda, understanding the
content of propaganda, and discovering the effect of propaganda on the mass audience (Rogers, 1994). Lasswell is credited with creating the mass communication procedure of content analysis
(Rogers, 1994). Generally, content analysis can be defined as, ...the investigation of communication messages by categorizing message content into classifications in order to
measure certain variables
(Rogers, 1994). In an essay entitled "Contents of Communication," Lasswell (1946) explains that a content analysis should take into account the frequency with
which certain symbols appear in a message, the direction in which the symbols try to persuade the audience’s opinion, and the intensity of the symbols used. By understanding the content of the
message, Lasswell (1946) aims to achieve the goal of understanding the stream of influence that runs from control to content and from content to audience
(p. 74).
This method of content analysis is tied strongly to Lasswell's (1953) early definition of communication which stated, Who says what in which channel to whom and with what
effects
(p. 84). Content analysis was essentially the 'says what' part of this definition, and Lasswell went on to do a lot of work within this area during the remainder of his career.
Lasswell's most well-known content analyses were an examination of the propaganda content during World War One and Two. In Propaganda Technique in the World War, Lasswell
(1938) examined propaganda techniques through a content analysis, and came to some striking conclusions. Lasswell (1938) was similar to Ellul, in that he showed that the content of war
propaganda had to be pervasive in all aspects of the citizen’s life in order to be effective. Furthermore, Lasswell (1938) showed that as more people were reached by this propaganda, the war
effort would become more effective. ...[T]he active propagandist is certain to have willing help from everybody, with an axe to grind in transforming the War into a march toward
whatever sort of promised land happens to appeal to the group concerned. The more of these sub-groups he can fire for the War, the more powerful will be the united devotion of the people to the
cause of the country, and to the humiliation of the enemy
(Lasswell, 1938, p. 76).
Aside from understanding the content of propaganda, Lasswell was also interested in how propaganda could shape public opinion. This dealt primarily with understanding the effects of the media.
Lasswell was particularly interested in examining the effects of the media in creating public opinion within a democratic system. In Democracy Through Public Opinion, Lasswell (1941) examines
the effects of propaganda on public opinion, and the effects of public opinion on democracy. Lasswell (1941) claims, Democratic government acts upon public opinion and public
opinion acts openly upon government
(p. 15). Affecting this relationship is the existence of propa ganda. Due to this propaganda, General suspiciousness is directed against all
sources of information. Citizens may convince themselves that it is hopeless to get the truth about public affairs
(Lasswell, 1941, p. 40). In this way, Lasswell has created a cycle,
whereby the public is limited in the information that is presented to them, and also apprehensive to accept it. However, it is still that information that is affecting their decisions within
the democratic system, and is being presented to them by the government. This is an interesting way of viewing the power of the media that is somewhat similar to Lippmann’s theories.
- 2896 reads