Tourism through the ages

Introduction

As we prepare for an annual vacation or a weekend trip we take for granted how easy present-day travel is. We do not realize the conditions necessary for present-day tourism to flourish. Consider what we require to travel. First, we must have the free time to engage in leisure pursuits. Second, we must have the money to go somewhere. Where we go is affected by the means of transportation. A combination of time, money, and availability of transportation determines where we will go. When we get there (wherever "it" is) we must have a way of paying for our purchases. While the joy of travel is enhanced by a certain amount of risk, the route and the destination must be sufficiently safe to encourage our travel. It is only by surveying where we have come from that we can truly appreciate where we are now and plan for where we might want to be.

Early travel

Early peoples tended to stay in one place. Travel was essentially to seek food or to escape danger.

The Bible, however, makes reference to travel for purposes of trade. In ancient times we began to see the development of routes for the purpose of facilitating trade and the creation of specialized, if somewhat crude, vehicles specifically for traveling. The growth of cities along water ways, such as the Nile River and the Mediterranean Sea, encouraged the development of water travel.

The Empire era

Egyptians. As empires grew, we began to see the development of the conditions necessary for travel. At the peak of the Egyptian era, travel for both business and pleasure began to flourish.

Travel was necessary between the central government and the outlying territories. To accommodate travelers on official business, hospitality centers were built along major routes and in the cities. Egyptians also traveled for pleasure, and public festivals were held several times a year. Herodotus, sometimes called the first travel writer, observed:

Travel also satisfied people's curiosity. The earlier Pharaohs used the good building stone of the Nile to construct great tombs and temples as early as 2700 BCE Over a thousand years later the Egyptians found themselves surrounded by this historical treasure chest. Writers noted that visitors left messages to show they had been there (graffiti?) and took home remembrances of the trip (souvenirs?).

Assyrians and Persians. Assyria comprised the area now known as Iraq. As the empire expanded from the Mediterranean in the west to the Persian Gulf in the east, the means of travel were improved, largely for military use. Roads were improved, markers were established to indicate distances, and posts and wells were developed for safety and nourishment. Even today we see the influence of military construction aiding pleasure travel. The recently completed United States interstate highway system was developed initially to facilitate transportation in the event of a national emergency.

The Assyrian military traveled by chariot, others by horse, while the donkey was the principal mode of transportation of the common people.

The Persians, who defeated the Assyrians, continued improvements in the travel infrastructure. New kinds of wagons were developed including a four-wheeled carriage for the wealthy.

Greeks. While previous civilizations had set the stage for the development of travel, it took the Greeks and, later, the Romans to bring it all together.

The Greeks continued in the tradition of the great traders. Because water was the most important means of moving commercial goods, Greek cities grew up along the coast, thus ensuring that travel was primarily by sea.

Travel for official business was less important as Greece was divided into city-states that were fiercely independent. Pleasure travel did exist in three areas: for religious festivals, for sporting events (most notably the Olympic Games), and to visit cities, especially Athens.

Travel was advanced by two important developments. First, through currency exchange. Previously travelers would pay their way by carrying various goods and selling them at their destination. The money of Greek city-states was now accepted as international currency, eliminating the need to travel with a retinue of goods. Second, the Greek language spread throughout the Mediterranean area, making it easier to communicate as one traveled.

Romans. Travel flourished in Roman times for several reasons. The control of the sprawling Roman Empire stimulated trade and led to the growth of a large middle class with the money to travel; Roman coins were all the traveler had to carry to finance the trip; the means of transportation, roads and waterways, were excellent; communication was relatively easy as Greek and Latin were the principal languages; and the legal system provided protection from foreign courts, thereby ensuring the safety of the traveler.

The sporting games started by the Greeks were copied in the fights-to-the-death of the Roman gladiators. Sightseeing was also popular, particularly trips to Greece. Greece had recently become a part of greater Rome and was now the place to see. Pausanias, a Greek, wrote a 10 volume guide to Greece, aimed at Roman tourists, in 170 CE In his 10 volumes he describes in great detail the monuments, sculptures and the stories and myths behind them.

Touring was also popular to Egypt, site of the Sphinx and the Pyramids, and to Asia Minor, scene of the Trojan

War. Aristotle visited Asia Minor before establishing his famous school.

It was at this time that an unknown scholar developed the idea of the Seven Wonders of the World.

A final development was that of second homes and vacations associated with them. Villas spread from Rome south to Naples, near the sea, to the mountains, and to mineral spas.

Europeans

Pilgrims. As the Roman Empire collapsed in the fifth century, roads fell into disuse and barbarians made it unsafe to travel. Whereas a Roman courier could travel up to 160 kilometers a day, the average daily rate of journey during the Middle Ages was 32 kilometers.

It was not until the twelfth century that the roads became secure again. This was due to the large numbers of travelers going on pilgrimages.

Pilgrims traveled to pay homage to a particular site or as an atonement for sin. Those who heard confessions often required the sinner to travel barefoot. In other cases pilgrims journeyed to fulfill a promise made when they were sick. Sir John Mandeville is credited with writing a fourteenth-century manual for pilgrims to the Holy Land. In it we see the early signs of the destructive nature of tourists:

Beginning in 1388 King Richard II required pilgrims to carry permits, the forerunner of the modern passport.

Renaissance. The next important factor in the history of travel was the Renaissance. As society moved from a rural to an urban base, wealth grew and more people had the money to travel. Pilgrimages were still important although journeys to Jerusalem declined because of the growth of Protestantism in Europe. The impetus to travel in order to learn was aided by the arrival of Renaissance works from Italy. Stable monarchies helped assure travelers' safety, although, as can be seen in the writings of this sixteenth-century traveler, certain precautions still had to be taken:

Grand Tour. The beginning of the sixteenth century saw a new age of curiosity and exploration that culminated in the popularity of the Grand Tour. This was initially a sixteenth-century Elizabethan concept brought about by the need to develop a class of professional statesmen and ambassadors. Young men accompanied ambassadors throughout Europe in order to complete their education.

The practice developed into the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries until it became almost routine. No gentleman's education was complete until he spent from one to three years traveling around Europe with a tutor. This practice was undoubtedly influenced by the writings of John Locke, who believed that human knowledge came entirely from external sources. Once one environment was "exhausted" it became necessary to travel on to another. Thus, travel became a requirement for those seeking to develop the mind and accumulate knowledge.

The Grand Tour began in France, where French was studied together with dancing, fencing, riding, and drawing. Before Paris could corrupt one's morals or ruin one's finances, the student would head for Italy to study sculpture, music appreciation and art. The return was by way of Germany, Switzerland and the Low countries (Holland, Belgium and Luxembourg).

Travel was by coach and could be rather uncomfortable. It was also necessary to "prove" one's culture and sophistication by returning home armed with paintings and sculptures, many of which were frauds foisted on unsuspecting travelers.

While travel was primarily by the English, some 20,000 people a year, the aristocracy of Scandinavia and Russia soon followed the Grand Tour practice.

Though fewer in number, some notable Germans also took the Grand Tour. One such was the writer Goethe. One of his experiences illustrates the differences in cultural values between host and guest:

The Grand Tour reached its peak of popularity in the mid-eighteenth century, but was brought to a sudden end by the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars.

The Victorian age

In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries two major factors affected the development of tourism. Increased industrialization accounted for both of them. First, the Industrial Revolution accelerated the movement from rural to urban areas. This produced a large number of people in a relatively small area. The desire to “escape”, even for a brief period, was present. Associated with this was the development of steam engines in the form of trains and steamships. This allowed the means to escape.

Because of the proximity of the coast to the major urban areas, it was only natural that train lines were extended in these directions. However, the vast majority of visitors to the seaside were day-trippers. It was well into the second half of the nineteenth century that the working classes were able to get regular holidays and sufficient income to use their leisure time to travel.

Development of spas. The development of spas was largely due to the medical profession, which, during the seventeenth century, began to recommend the medicinal properties of mineral waters. The idea originated, however, with the Greeks. The Roman Empire in Britain associated health with baths and springs. The word "spa" in fact comes from “espa”, meaning a fountain, and was taken from the Belgian town of Spa.

Spas on the continent of Europe were developed two hundred to three hundred years before their growth in England. Development occurred because of three factors: the approval of the medical profession; court patronage; and local entrepreneurship to take advantage of the first two.

Patronage by court figures helped establish spas as the "in" place to be. Today we talk in tourism about "mass follows class", the idea that the masses are influenced in their choice of vacation spot by where people influential to them visit. Today, film stars seem to have taken over the role of influencer once enjoyed by royalty.

The number of people who could afford to "take the waters" was rather small. By the end of the seventeenth century, the influence of the medical profession had declined and spas were more for entertainment than for health. Their popularity continued, however, into the nineteenth century. It is still possible today to drink from the mineral waters at Bath in England, while Hot Springs and Glenwood Springs in the American states of Arkansas and Colorado, respectively, still attract many visitors. Additionally, many Eastern European towns proclaim the beneficial effects of mud packs and hydrotherapy.

Growth of seaside resorts. The medical profession, the British court, and Napoleon all helped popularize the seaside resort. The original motive for sea bathing was for reasons of health. Dr Richard Russell argued that sea water was effective against such maladies as cirrhosis, dropsy, gout, gonorrhea, and scurvy, and he insisted that people drink a pint of it daily. It is worth noting that the good Dr Russell was a physician in Brighton, a resort close to London and on the water!

Brighton's fame was assured after the patronage of the Prince Regent, who later became George IV. Similarly, Southend and Cowes are associated with Princess Charlotte and Queen Victoria, respectively.

The growth of the seaside resort was stimulated by the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. It will be recalled that both contributed to the demise of the Grand Tour. Those who would have taken the Grand Tour could not travel to the Continent. The now fashionable seaside resorts were the alternative.

Seaside resorts were genteel to the point of being dull. Originally people bathed in the nude. This, however, led to inquisitive onlookers. The bathers then turned to bathing machines that could be rolled out into deep waters. The sightseers countered with telescopes! This led to the wearing of bathing dresses, which revealed nothing. Visitors were led to complain:

Toward the end of the nineteenth century the seaside resorts became the palaces for the working classes. This was due to the introduction of paid holidays and better wages.

The term holiday comes from "holy days", days for religious observances. Ancient Rome featured public holidays for great feasting. As Europe became Christian certain saints' days and religious festivals became holy days when people fasted and prayed and refrained from work. After the Industrial Revolution, religious holidays gradually became secularized and the week's holiday emerged. The vacation was negotiated between employer and the workers and was again due to the economic and social changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution. It made sense to take the holidays during the warmer summer months. For the employer it was advantageous to close the entire factory down for one week rather than face the problems of operating with small groups of people absent over a longer period of time. Even today, certain weeks are associated with the general holidays of certain towns.

Prior to World War I, the principal mode of transportation was the railway. This meant that development was concentrated at particular points. Regional development occurred with particular resorts growing to serve specific urban areas. The growth of the automobile, as will be seen later, allowed tourism to become more dispersed.

Americans

Early travel in the US. Tourism in the United States developed for the same reasons as in Europe. Travel was limited by the need for transportation. The first development of note was that of resorts. With the encouragement of physicians, resorts like Saratoga in New York state became very fashionable by the early 1800s. Ocean resorts also became attractive for health reasons initially, although amusements soon sprang up as well.

It took the development of the railway to open up the country to travelers. The completion of the Erie Railroad spurred the development of Niagara Falls as a honeymoon paradise by the 1870s.

The vast river network of the interior of the nation allowed the development of steamboat excursions, particularly gambling and amusement trips between the New Orleans, Louisiana and St Louis, Missouri.

The Industrial Revolution produced a class of wealthy people who had the time to travel. Thus, touring became popular. Many people took the Grand Tour. For most people in the South, an American-style Grand Tour to the north took a comparable amount of time and money. Three attractions were paramount: northern cities, historical sites (those associated with the American Revolution and the US Civil War), and resorts.

By the late 1800s, the West was attracting not only easterners but also Europeans to see the natural beauty and to hunt buffalo. Foreign travelers were also fascinated at this time by travel for religious reasons, to visit the important shrines of the various religious sects that had sprung up.

The 12-hour workday had been reduced to 10 hours by the end of the 1800s, and vacations were beginning to be recognized. While travel had been for the few, now it began to come within the reach of more and more people.

Tourism today. Today, Americans take more than 500 million trips annually to places 160 kilometers or more from home. Over two-thirds of these trips are pleasure-oriented. Over half of the pleasure trips are to visit friends and relatives. Approximately two-thirds of all trips are taken by auto, truck, or recreational vehicle. Weekend trips, as distinct from the traditional vacation trip, have been increasing and now represent about 40 per cent of all trips taken.

For every USD 100 spent on trips over 40 kilometers from home, about USD 37 is spent on personal transportation, USD 21 on purchases, USD 14 on food, USD 13 on public transportation, USD 9 on lodging, and USD 6 on entertainment and recreation.

The major beneficiaries of tourism, in terms of US dollars spent there, are the states of California, Florida, New York, Texas, and New Jersey.

Transportation

The mode of transportation available determines the destinations to which one can travel. The location of accommodation, in turn, followed the development of transportation.

Stagecoach travel. Coaches were invented in Hungary in the fifteenth century. The word coach comes from the Hungarian town of Kocs. The first coaches were closed carriages suspended on leather straps between four wheels. The straps acted as springs that attempted to compensate for the poor condition of the roads.

The need to rest horses every few kilometers led to the development of post, or posting, houses where the animals could be changed or fed. This also allowed passengers the opportunity to rest their weary bones, for the poor state of most roads meant that travel was a jolting experience. In fact, the development of the English tavern was due to the need of stagecoach passengers to have overnight accommodation.

A major development in travel by road came in the early nineteenth century when John McAdam and Thomas Telford invented a new type of road surface that greatly improved the common dirt road found throughout Europe. The technique consisted of laying small broken stones over the general level of the ground with suitable drainage on each side of the road. It is said that McAdam insisted that no stone be used if it could not fit into the mouth of the laborer laying it down. The result was an increase in the comfort factor when traveling by coach.

Rail travel. The first railway was opened in England in 1825. While some people thought that trains went too fast for decent people, the increase in speed made day trips to the coast possible. At a cost of one penny a kilometer (cheaper than travel by coach) and a speed of 30 kilometers per hour, a large demand was created. The result was an accelerated growth in the popularity of English seaside resorts.

First-class cars were lighted by oil lamps and had comfortable accommodations. Second-class coaches had roofs but no sides, while third-class passengers rode in open cars. Brakes were unreliable as were the rails. Spikes often came loose from the rails, which buckled and could pierce both cars and passengers.

Food was served on American trains beginning in the 1860s. Salon cars sold buffalo, elk, beefsteak, or mutton for USD 1. It took George Mortimer Pullman to introduce comfortable overnight travel by rail for other than the upper classes. Sleeping berths cost USD 2 a night in the Pioneer. In Europe the Compagnie des Wagon-Lits equivalent was the Orient Express from Paris to Istanbul.

By the early twentieth century a private railroad car was a sign of wealth, but the 1929 stock market crash in the United States brought an end to the practice. Today, some private rail cars have been renovated to their former glory for special tours.

The heyday of the railroads lasted approximately 100 years, from the 1830s to the 1930s. Railroads in the United States could not meet the challenge of the airlines, which offered speed over long distances, or buses that provided luxury coaches over shorter distances. Railroads in some cases sought to dissuade people from using rail transport. They felt there was much more profit to be made from hauling freight. Use of rail tracks by long, heavy and slow freight trains means that American passenger trains can never reach the speeds of European and Japanese trains. Tracks are in such poor shape that speed is severely limited.

Water travel. Travel by water naturally preceded rail transport, but it was not until the mid-nineteenth century that the ocean liners came into prominence. Sir Samuel Cunard inaugurated the first regular steamship service between Britain and the United States in 1840. By the 1890s the trip was done in six days.

Just as the automobile and the airplane led to the decline of train travel, so too the airplane led to the demise of the ocean liner. In its peak year of 1957, over one million passengers crossed the ocean on liners. The following year more people crossed the Atlantic by plane than by ship. Between 1960 and 1975, passenger departures from New York fell from 500,000 a year to 50,000. Transatlantic travel by liner has almost disappeared.

Existing ships were refitted for cruising, and then newer, lighter cruise ships were built as the demand increased. The worldwide cruise market is well over two million passengers strong. Yet the potential is much larger. Less than 10 per cent of the US population has ever taken a cruise. Cruising is much more of a vacation experience than a mode of transportation.

Travel by road. Henry Ford's Model T of 1908 started a revolution in American tourism. Destination development was tied to the means of transportation. From the early posting houses to the railroad hotels and resorts and steamship ports, wherever transportation brought people was where the destinations grew. Development of tourism was concentrated in those areas. But the arrival of the automobile changed all that. Now people began to travel wherever they wanted on a road system that criss-crossed the country. Development became more dispersed rather than being concentrated in a few places. The benefits of tourism were being spread more widely.

Organizing such a system also became more complex. People could now much more readily travel when they wanted as well as where they wanted. They were no longer at the mercy of schedules put together by the transportation companies. However, they were still limited by such things as time and money.

The motel is a legacy of the automobile. It is also another example of how accommodations developed to follow the transportation routes.

Today, over 90 per cent of all pleasure trips taken in the United States are done by automobile.

Air travel. Regularly scheduled air service began in 1919 by what was to become Deutsche Lufthansa. Air service in both Europe and the United States was reserved for ferrying the mail. Seven years later Western Airlines began carrying the mail and one passenger if the weight limitations permitted.

By 1940, the travel time between Britain and the United States had been cut from six days to one, and the airlines began to take away the market from the liners. In 1958 the introduction of jet travel reduced the time from

24 hours to eight. Today, the Concorde crosses the Atlantic in just over three hours.

Accommodations

Early inns. In earlier times, travelers stayed in private homes and were treated as part of the family. People felt an obligation to house the traveler. As travel became more popular, however, specific buildings were erected to house travelers. The first hostelries were called ordinaries, and they date from the mid-seventeenth century in colonial America. They later evolved into taverns and inns or houses.

An ordinary usually consisted of two small rooms. One room had a bar and was used for eating and drinking; the other room was reserved for the landlord and his family. Travelers slept on the floor of the bar and dining room.

As the amount of travel grew, so did the demand for accommodation along the way. Inns offered sleeping quarters for overnight guests while taverns consisted of places specializing in food, drink and conviviality. It was accepted practice for travelers of the same sex to share both rooms and beds.

The grand hotels. The Victorian era of the early nineteenth century gave us two remarkable institutions: the railway station and the grand hotel. No longer was overnight accommodation a painful necessity. It was in the United States that the first grand hotel was developed, the City Hotel in New York City. Opened at the end of the eighteenth century, it consisted of 73 rooms on five floors.

The Tremont House, which opened in Boston in 1829, is generally regarded as the first modern hotel in America. Then the largest hotel in the world, with 170 rooms and a dining room capable of seating 200 people, it broke with the traditional inn in several ways: It had both single and double rooms, numerous public rooms, the stables were isolated from the rooms, and there was no signboard outside the front entrance.

The Tremont also offered several features that were novel for the times: eight baths with cold running water in the basement, a row of eight water closets on the ground floor, gas lights in the public rooms, a different key for each room, and free soap (regarded as an extravagance).

As America grew, each town sought to have its own Tremont House to symbolize how successful and prosperous it was.

By the twentieth century, as more people traveled, the nature of the hotel industry changed. The opening of the Buffalo Statler signaled the beginning of the commercial hotel concept. The hotel's slogan was "a room and a bath for a dollar and a half". The Great Depression brought the travel industry to a virtual halt, until after World War II.

Motels. Following World War II, peacetime prosperity saw the means to travel spread to more and more people. Business people traveled by car rather than by train, and whole families were taking vacations. As middle America took off in the automobile a new class of motor hotels or motels, sprang up to cater to their needs. However, the quality of these "mom and pop" operations was spotty.

One traveler who decided to do something about it was Kemmons Wilson. On a vacation trip with his family he found cramped, uncomfortable rooms, extra charges for children, and less than adequate restaurants. In 1952, he opened a motel that would be the first Holiday Inn. It had a swimming pool, air conditioning, a restaurant on the premises, a telephone in every room, free ice, dog kennels, free parking and baby sitters available. As occupancy increased in motels, it decreased in hotels.

Hotels today. As Holiday Inns developed in size, they also added features to their properties. Rooms were better furnished and facilities were added. As they moved upscale a gap was left at the lower-priced end of the market. That gap was filled by a variety of budget chains offering a clean room without the frills required by a business person or family traveler en route to a destination.

The other end of the market opened up also with a variety of luxury properties and all-suite hotels that provided a two-room suite for families or business people.

Chains have increased their influence, and the independent is finding it increasingly harder to compete.

Today, the hotel industry is segmenting its marketing efforts to an extent not seen before. Properties are being built for specific groups of people: the upscale, the middle market, and the value conscious. Many of the chains have separate divisions competing in the marketplace.

Tourism: a definition

A variety of definitions exist for what we call tourism. Thus, it is important to know exactly what we are talking about when we say "tourism" for several reasons. The development of attractions and facilities requires increasingly large amounts of money. A decision to build or not build depends upon numbers of potential users. Is there a large enough market to support such a project, be it a hotel, restaurant or theme park? If we can arrive at a common definition of tourism, travel and tourist then we are better able to use the numbers or data to determine whether or not to build, where to advertise, which destinations are growing or fading. In short, our business decisions will be better if they are made with a full understanding of what exactly we are talking about.

Tourism is not an industry, although tourism gives rise to a variety of industries. Tourism is an activity engaged in by people who travel.

International tourist

League of Nations. It is generally agreed that definitions of a tourist are unsatisfactory. According to the League of Nations in 1937, a "foreign tourist" is:

The following individuals are considered tourists:

The following individuals are not regarded as tourists:

The definition of "foreign tourist" was largely one of time, staying in the country for more than 24 hours. Exceptions were made for those on a sea cruise. The motivations for travel, to be included as a tourist, were rather liberal. As long as people were not arriving to take up work or were not students they were called "tourists" whether their purpose was business or pleasure.

IUOTO. In 1950, the International Union of Official Travel Organizations (IUOTO), which later became the World Tourism Organization, suggested two changes to the above definition. The organization recommended that "students and young persons in boarding establishments or schools" be regarded as tourists. It also suggested that excursionists and transit travelers not be defined as tourists. The IUOTO believed that the term "excursionist" should be given to someone traveling for pleasure in a country in which he or she normally does not reside a period of less than 24 hours as long as the person was not there to work. A "transit traveler" could actually be in the country longer than 24 hours. According to the IUOTO this term referred to "any person traversing a country even for a period of more than 24 hours, without stopping, or a person traversing a country during a period of less than 24 hours, provided that the stops made are of short duration and for other than tourism purposes". 7 

United Nations' Rome Conference. In 1963, the United Nations Conference on International Travel and Tourism in Rome recommended a definition of the term "visitor" to include any person who visits a country other than the one in which he or she lives for any purpose other than one which involves pay from the country being visited.

Specifically, conference members noted that visits could be for the following reasons:

If the person stayed for less than 24 hours, he or she would be an "excursionist". If the person stayed longer, he or she would be a tourist. Under this definition a tourist would be someone who traveled for business or for pleasure as long as the individual did not receive money from the country visited.

In 1968, the United Nations Statistical Commission accepted this definition but recommended that member- nations decide for themselves whether to use the term "excursionist" or "day visitor". The important point was to distinguish between visitors who did or did not stay overnight.

United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. In 1978, the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations published guidelines that included a definition of the term "international visitor". The agency recognized that international visitors were those who visited a given country from abroad (what we might call inbound tourists) and those who went abroad on visits from a given country (outbound tourists). It indicated that the maximum period a person could spend in a country and still be called a visitor would be one year.

Most countries at the national level accept the United Nations' definition of visitors.

The classification of travelers adopted by the World Tourism Organization is shown in Figure 1.9 . Briefly, an international tourist is someone who spends at least one night, but no more than one year, in a country other than his or her own. The tourist can be there for a variety of reasons but not for pay from the country being visited. A person who meets the above criteria but who does not stay overnight is called an excursionist.

Domestic tourist

World tourism organization. The World Tourism Organization has also proposed a definition for "domestic tourist" that is based on length of stay:

A domestic excursionist is someone who meets the above definition but who does not stay overnight.  8 

National tourism resources review commission. In 1973, the National Tourism Resources Review Commission published its landmark study of tourism in the United States. In it, the commission proposed that a domestic tourist was one who traveled away from home for at least 80 kilometers one way. The travel could be for any reason except commuting to work.

The Canadian government specifies that a tourist is one who travels at least 40 kilometers outside his or her community.

Trip. The US Census Bureau publishes the National Travel Survey every five years. In the 1963 and 1967 surveys, the bureau defined a "trip" as "each time a person goes to a place at least 160 kilometers away from home and returns or is out-of-town one or more nights". Later surveys omitted the phrase "or is out-of-town one or more nights". This means that estimates of national tourist travel are understated as, for example, weekend trips to locations less than 160 kilometers away are not counted.

US travel data center. The prestigious Travel Data Center regularly collects, analyzes and publishes data on travel and tourism in the United States. It has accepted the definition of the US Census Bureau. Travel as part of an operating crew on a train, plane, bus, truck or ship, commuting to a place of work or trips made by students to and from school are not included in the center's definition of a trip.

Travel, tourism, and recreation

For the purpose of this text, travel refers to the act of moving outside of one's home community for business or for pleasure but not for commuting or traveling to or from school.

Tourism is the term given to the activity that occurs when tourists travel. This encompasses everything from the planning of the trip, the travel to the place, the stay itself, the return and the reminiscences about it afterwards. It includes the activities the travel undertakes as part of the trip, the purchases bought and the interactions that occur between host and guest. In sum, tourism is all of the activities and events that occur when a visitor travels.

The term "recreation" overlaps in many ways with tourism. Recreation is what happens during an individual's leisure time. Leisure time is defined as the time people have discretion over. During leisure time, individuals can do what they want. The activities that people engage in during leisure time are known as recreation. Some say that to be "recreation" the activity should be constructive or pleasurable. This might involve either active or passive pursuits, indoor or outdoor activities. There is no time or distance aspect to recreation. A round of golf three kilometers from home after work would constitute recreation. If I packed my clubs into the car and drove 160 kilometers to a resort for the weekend, my round of golf would be part of tourism and I would be on a trip.

The dimensions of tourism

There are four major dimensions to tourism: attractions, facilities, transportation, and hospitality.

Attractions

Attractions draw people to a destination. As an inducer of growth they either are what first draws visitors to the area or, in terms of development, tend to be developed first.

Attraction may be a primary destination, such as the American theme park Disney World, where it is attractive enough to be the primary motivation for a visit. It might also be a secondary destination, an interesting or necessary place to visit for one or two days on the way to the primary destination. Such places are also called stopover or touring destinations. A tourist driving from Washington, DC, to Florida in the United States may, for example, stop for a day in Knoxville, Tennessee. Knoxville is the stopover destination on the way to the primary destination, Florida. From a marketing perspective it is important to know whether the visitor considers you a primary or secondary destination. Primary destinations are oriented toward the location of the market (say Disneyland) or to the site of the resource (for example, Aspen). This will be explored further in the chapters on destination development.

Attractions may be based on natural resources, culture, ethnicity, or entertainment.

Natural resources. Every area is blessed to a certain extent with natural resources, which takes in the physical features, the climate, and the natural beauty of the area.

Each area has its own unique combination of natural resource features. The most important features for tourism are the attractiveness brought about by differences in temperature, the variety of the scenery and the number of recreational opportunities the resources allow.

It is said that opposites attract, and that is certainly true in tourism. North Americans are drawn to the sun of Florida in winter; places that have no snow send tourists to the slopes of Colorado in winter. Because climatic changes are seasonal, it is desirable to make use of the natural resources throughout the year if possible. For years the resorts of Colorado relied totally on winter ski business. After one particularly bad year ("bad" for a winter resort means little or no snow) resort owners realized that if the snowfall was poor their entire year was ruined.

Now the resort areas are encouraging what is known as multiple-use of facilities. Mountains that provide for winter skiing can also accommodate hikers or water slides in summer.

Location, or accessibility, is very important to the success of a destination that relies upon natural resources. For most tourism destinations, there is a direct relationship between distance and demand; the farther away people are from the destination, the fewer their numbers visiting it as a proportion of total attendance.

The natural resources of a destination are very fragile. Because of its attractiveness the destination draws people. These visitors leave their marks (and sometimes their garbage) on the resource. As a result the destination becomes less attractive. Once the decline has started it is difficult to reverse. The key is to manage the resource in such a way that it will maintain its attractiveness to tourists.

Culture. The culture of an area is the way of life of its people. It is exhibited in such things as places of historical interest, religion, the way people live, the way they are governed and their traditions, both past and present. Part of the culture of the British is the tradition of afternoon tea and going down to the pub at night. Both are part of the attraction of visiting that country.

Ethnicity. The number one reason that people in North America take a trip is to visit friends and relatives. Because of the mobility of Americans (it is estimated that one out of five people moves each year) vacations are often used to renew ties with family and friends.

On an international level there is the desire to get back to one's homeland. Distinct travel patterns can be seen, such as the movement of Bostonians to Ireland and residents of Toronto to Scotland. There are two types of such tourists. First-generation tourists generally stay with relatives whereas later generations are more likely to stay in hotels. For the former there is a great desire to see things the way they remembered them. Later generations expect more of the creature comforts to which they have grown accustomed.

Entertainment. Tourists are often attracted to a place because of the entertainment provided. That entertainment may be a permanent feature of the destination such as a theme park or zoo. Obvious examples in the United States are Disney World, Six Flags Over Georgia, and the San Diego Zoo. The entertainment may be a temporary event such as the American Super Bowl or a county fair. There has been an increasing trend toward active participation in recreational activities. The attraction may not be to watch people run, for example, but to participate in the sport.

Facilities

Attractions bring people to the destination and facilities service them when they get there. Because they are away from home, the visitor requires certain things: a place to stay, something to eat and drink. Facilities support, rather than start, the growth of a destination. The major facilities are lodging places, restaurants for food and beverages, support services, and infrastructure.

Lodging. Almost half of all American tourists stay with friends and relatives when taking a trip. Despite this, lodging accounts for between one-fifth to one-fourth of total tourist expenditures.

To be successful a destination area needs sufficient accommodation of the right kind to appeal to the visitor. That may mean campsites, or bed and breakfast places in private homes, hotels, motels or resorts. The type provided will depend upon the market being catered to.

As noted earlier in this chapter, the type of accommodation provided is, in part, determined by the transportation used by visitors to the destination. A system of bed and breakfast houses will work only if the visitors travel by car.

Food and beverage. The largest proportion of the tourist dollar is spent on food and beverage. A majority of tourists, when they travel, seem to want both food and drinks with which they are familiar. The British tourist craves cups of tea and fish and chips; the American wants hamburgers and ice water.

Yet some destinations have marketed their cuisine as part of the tourism experience. When destinations do this they create a demand for local products. This "backward" linkage means that other local industries share in the benefits of tourism. On the other hand, when destinations import food and beverage to meet tourists' needs, they keep less of the tourist dollar within the destination.

Support services. Support services for tourism include such things as souvenir or duty-free shops, laundries, guides and recreational facilities.

Most support services for tourism are small businesses. This presents both advantages and potential difficulties for the destination. On the positive side, the fact that the businesses are small means that the tourist dollar is spread among those people within the destination. Many hosts share in the benefits of tourism. A major difficulty is that many small businesses fail because they lack the capital and/or the management expertise of larger operations.

In many cases shopping becomes a major reason for traveling to a particular destination. Travelers will often go to Hong Kong solely for the shopping bargains. Even if shopping is not the major motivation it is important for most people to purchase gifts for those left at home as a souvenir to remind them of their trip. Souvenirs that are true to the area can serve several purposes. First, they help that "backward linkage", stimulating the economy by creating an industry of artisans. Second, souvenirs can serve as marketing devices. Tourists buy souvenirs and later display them in their home. Souvenirs act as constant reminders to them of their visit as well as being on view to visitors to their homes. Third, the making and selling of authentic souvenirs can help preserve the culture of an area. The Cuna Indians of Panama, in making molas, or blouses, for tourists, have kept that part of their culture alive.

It is important that support services be readily accessible to the tourist and that the services offered be of a quality and price level to meet tourists' needs.

Infrastructure. The infrastructure of an area is comprised of the following: Water systems; communication networks; health care facilities; transportation terminals; power sources; sewage/drainage areas; streets/ highways; security systems.

The attractions and facilities of a destination are not accessible to visitors until a basic infrastructure exists. However, it is not necessary that a fully developed infrastructure be in place. For some tourists in certain destinations the lack of modern highways may actually be an attraction. Several years ago the Irish Tourist Board ran a newspaper ad showing a motorist on a narrow road stuck behind a flock of sheep. The headline said: "A traffic jam in Ireland".

In most cases development of the infrastructure is the responsibility of the public sector. Any advances in the infrastructure benefit not only the tourist but also the residents of the area.

Infrastructure is costly and requires a long lead time to plan and develop.

Transportation

The basis of tourism is that people want to travel to a place that is different from that which they are used to, a different culture, different climate, different scenery. Different places are physically removed from each other. Hence the necessity to travel to them. Hence, also, the need for, and the importance of, transportation to get there and to get there comfortably.

Conditions for travel. Travel between two points can be explained in terms of three factors: complementarity, intervening opportunity and transferability. 9  For travel to take place there must be a demand in one place and supply in another. People in Scotland want sunshine (demand); the Mediterranean offers sunshine (supply); thus complementarity exists. This factor will induce travel only if no intervening opportunity is present. If the same guarantee of sunshine could be found closer to home then people from Scotland would not travel to the Mediterranean. This explains why more people from the northeastern United States travel to Florida for the sun than to California.

The third factor explaining travel is transferability, the distance between two points measured in time and money. Even if complementarity exists and there are no intervening opportunities, travel will not take place if the distance is perceived as being too far and/or the cost of travel is perceived as being too great.

There is an important relationship between transportation and tourism. The improvement of transportation facilities has stimulated tourism, whereas the expansion of tourism has increased the need for better transportation.

Saving time. Increasingly, people measure distance not in terms of miles or kilometers but in terms of time. They "spend" time to get from one point to another. Time can be saved in a variety of ways. New methods may be found to increase the speed by which the traveler is transported. A major factor in this regard was the introduction of jet aircraft in the 1950s. Planes could now fly at up to 965 kilometers per hour, effectively halving the time between destinations.

A second way of saving time is to improve such things as rail lines to allow for faster movement. Amtrak took this approach in the US northeast corridor between Boston and Washington, DC The speed of its trains was limited not by the power and capabilities of the locomotives but by the poor condition of the track. Consequently, Amtrak spent a considerable amount of money on improving the roadbed, thereby reducing the time spent on the journey.

Time can be saved by scheduling full passenger loads. If a tour operator can guarantee an airline a full plane of tourists, the plane will leave when the operator wants it to leave. Departure times can then be scheduled that are convenient to the traveler.

As the speed of today's planes increases it often takes less time to fly between two airports than it does to get from the plane to downtown. Time is spent getting off the plane, waiting for luggage, finding ground transportation, and fighting the traffic in what is often a long journey, both in distance and time, to the downtown area. Time can be saved by considering ways to improve the travel from terminal to town by such means as high-speed rail connections. Passengers at Chicago's O'Hare and London's Heathrow airports can deplane and, without leaving cover, get on a train or tube to take them into the city.

Finally, time can be saved through the discovery and use of new devices such as radar and automatic signaling devices. Advances in these areas made during World War II were used after the war in the commercial airline industry to improve service.

Hospitality

The hospitality of an area is the general feeling of welcome that tourists receive while visiting the area. People do not want to go where they do not feel welcome. When most people think back on a trip it is not the weather or the scenery that comes to mind. Most often it is a memory of people, positive or negative interactions with other tourists, with the people of the destination, or with the employees of restaurants, hotels and shops.

Destinations can encourage a feeling of hospitality in several ways. First, it may be necessary to conduct a program to inform residents of the destination of what tourism can do and is doing for their area. Too often the residents only see the negatives, the long lines and high prices caused, they feel, by tourists. A community awareness program can show the benefits of both tourism and tourists. More specifically, for those who come into contact with tourists through their work, hospitality training may be necessary. Employees can be instructed in such things as the importance of appearance, greeting guests, and being helpful.

Each time a tourist meets an employee or resident of a tourist area is a "moment of truth".

How that employee or resident interacts with the tourist can either enhance the vacation or undo all the advertising that has gone into getting the visitor to travel to the destination.

Economic importance

The economic importance of tourism can be seen from the following figures:

Influences on travel patterns

For tourism to happen, people need the time, the money, the means and the motivation to travel.

Leisure

People spend their time in one of three ways: at work; engaged in necessary tasks (eating, sleeping, visiting sick aunts); or at leisure. Prior to the Industrial Revolution most people worked the land. The way they spent their time was influenced by the calendar and the weather.

The story is told of a farmer out with his plow on the Sabbath. He was working furiously to gather in his crops before an impending storm. His minister happened by and chided the farmer for working on the Sabbath.

"Now, Jock," said the minister, "even the Lord rested on the seventh day."

"Aye, minister," said the farmer with an eye on the approaching storm. "But he got finished and I didn't."

As people moved from the farms to the factories, time was controlled by the factory owners. Perhaps to have output on a continuous basis year-round, or perhaps to control the working classes, laborers were forced to work up to 70 hours a week. Their only day off was the Sabbath. Yet people were so tired and were paid so little that they had neither the energy nor the money to do anything or go anywhere. Moreover, the sanctity of the Sabbath was strictly enforced.

The first "holy days" were unpaid vacations. Even when an annual holiday was given, workers were not paid during the time they were off. Nevertheless, they at least had the time to spend. It took the rise in power of the trade unions in the 1920s and 1930s to fight for paid vacations. Today, the average workweek is less than 40 hours. Workers in the United States, West Germany, and Sweden have up to 40 days of paid leisure time a year. This is approximately twice that in Great Britain.

These days the demand is for blocks of time rather than reductions in the workday. The Uniform Monday Holidays Act established four three-day weekend holidays in the United States. This has an obvious impact on the opportunity for people to take a trip.

Over the years, there has been much talk of a four-day and eventually a three-day workweek. In reality, companies have not moved to the concept of a four-day workweek as quickly as forecasters thought. Studies that have been done indicate that, if people had more three-day weekends, they would likely take more weekend trips. However, people typically overestimate what they will do if and when they actually get the time. Studies of people who have four-day workweek jobs found that they tended to base their leisure time around the home because they were so tired from working.

Time is increasingly important to people. Unlike money, time cannot be saved. There is an increasing number of two-family households employed in the workplace. Additionally, a number of states are experimenting with year- round schooling. It will, therefore, become more difficult to find a time when all members of the family can get together for a vacation. Thus, there will be an increased demand for time-intensive activities. Such things as weekend packages and short cruises will appeal to families who have the money but not the time to travel.

Money

The second factor necessary for tourism to occur is money. Even when workers were first given an annual vacation they were not paid. As a result, few could travel. As paid vacations became the norm in the twentieth century, people had the time and the means to take a trip.

There are several aspects to the money required for travel. First, the money required is discretionary. That is, after obligations such as taxes, rent, and food are taken care of, individuals have discretion over how to spend the remainder of their money.

It might be saved, it might buy a compact disk player, or it might be spent on a getaway weekend. This illustration helps us realize that the tourism dollar is in competition with other consumer products. Before we can get the tourists to our destination or facility we must first get them interested in the idea of taking a vacation.

Second, the major economic factor (outside of paid vacations) that has influenced tourism is the presence of more and more two-income families. With two spouses working outside the home more discretionary income is available. Indeed, as pointed out above, time, in many cases, is becoming scarcer than money.

Means to travel

There are two aspects to mobility, or the means to travel. There is actual mobility, or the method people use to travel, such as air or automobile. Air and train travel tends to concentrate tourism; automobile and coach travel tends to disperse tourism development.

The second aspect to mobility is speed of movement. As people are able to travel faster, they save time and, with a limited vacation, can travel farther. As technology allows us to travel faster and faster, areas once thought inaccessible will now be within reach.

Motivation

Even if people have the time, the money and the mobility to travel, tourism will not happen unless they have the motivation to take a trip. People buy vacations for the same reasons they buy anything else: They feel that, by making the purchase, they will satisfy their needs and wants. Motivation occurs, when an individual is moved to satisfy a need.

We all have a variety of needs. Abraham Maslow identified a hierarchy of needs. Individuals are first concerned with physical needs, the need for food and drink, for example. As these needs are satisfied the individual's attention moves to a higher-level need: satisfaction of the need for safety, love and belonging, status, self-esteem, and self- actualization (being all that you can be). These higher-level needs are psychological rather than physical. To his original list, Maslow added two intellectual needs: the need to know and understand, and the need for aesthetics.

We may be unaware of a need but we know what we want. A couple may want a winter cruise but cannot exactly say why. The difference between a need and a want is that we are aware of our wants; we may not be aware of the underlying need we are seeking to satisfy. Too often marketers focus on advertising to the want without being aware of the underlying need. If the need can be established and advertised, the result will be a more powerful marketing appeal.

The couple who wanted a winter cruise may feel that, upon their return, they will be the envy of their neighbors (need for status). Or a single person may feel, after watching the television series Love Boat, that the result will be to meet the partner of their dreams (need for love).

The point is that we buy vacations to satisfy our needs, but we may be unaware of these needs. The role of marketing is to turn needs into wants by making us aware of them. Advertisements might say "Be the envy of your friends" or "Meet the person of your dreams". This might trigger a response that, yes, we would like our neighbors to envy us or we would like to meet that special person.

The second role of advertising is to suggest some way in which the need, now turned into a want, can be satisfied. "Take this cruise . . . and be the envy of your friends" or "Take this cruise . . . and meet the person of your dreams". People are moved to action after seeing the message, and that is where the motivation comes in.

It should be pointed out that advertisers do not have to trumpet their message in the words noted above. The message can be given through pictures and words that get the point across without being blatant about it.

One ad in Scottish newspapers showed two little girls in Canada. One was reading a letter. She turned to the other and said: "Guess what, Grandma and Grampa are coming . . . from Scotland!" Grandparents reading this have underlying needs for love, and the message makes them aware of that. Now they want to visit their grandchildren in Canada. They are motivated to travel. The message has not only made them aware of their need but also suggested how it can be satisfied.

When people have the time, the money, the means and the motivation then they will become tourists.

Careers in travel/tourism

The major industry segments associated with travel and tourism are:

Travel

Air lines. The domestic airlines employ over 450,000 people. Employees are classified as flight crew or ground crew. The flight crew, in turn, is made up of the flight deck crew and the cabin crew.

The flight deck crew consists of the captain or senior pilot, those responsible for operating the aircraft and supervising other crew members; the first officer or co-pilot, responsible for charting the route and computing flying time; and the second officer or flight engineer, who inspects the plane before takeoff and after landing and determines the amount of fuel needed. Newer planes are designed to require only two people in the cockpit, the pilot and the flight engineer.

A college degree is preferred for the cockpit crew. A commercial pilot's license is required. The flight engineer must have a flight engineer's rating, while pilots must have an instrument rating, an airline transport pilot's license, a radio operator's permit, and 1,500 hours of previous flight hours, usually received in the military or in general aviation.

Entrants usually begin as flight engineers. Promotion to first officer takes five to ten years; to captain, an additional ten years.

There can be up to 16 people in the cabin crew. The cabin crew is responsible for the care and safety of the passengers, and their duties range from serving food and beverages, to demonstrating safety equipment, giving first aid when required, and calming nervous flyers.

A college background is preferred for flight attendants. Training consists of a four-week to six-week training program. They can aspire to positions as purser, in charge of a flight crew, training supervisor, or a variety of ground positions in sales or public relations for the airline.

Ground crew positions are in reservations and sales, passenger services, maintenance and security. Reservation agents handle calls from passengers inquiring about flights and making reservations. Some college is preferred in addition to office experience and typing skills. Training lasts four weeks and includes lessons in the use of computers. Agents can advance to sales representative or flight attendant positions. In airline sales offices, most employees work outside the office as sales representatives calling on potential customers such as travel agencies and the business travel departments of corporations.

Passenger service employees work in the airport terminal checking luggage, assigning seats and boarding passengers.

Station managers and airport managers are found at airports. Every airline operating out of an airport employs a station manager who is responsible for the coordination of that airline's flights from that particular airport. The airport manager, on the other hand, is employed by the government authority that operates the airport and is responsible for the administration of the facility. This involves relations with the airlines, operation of the businesses within the airport, and the safety and maintenance of the aircraft. A college degree with a background in administration and an interest in air transportation or engineering is required.

Other positions are available in maintenance, security and air traffic control.

Cruise lines. In contrast to the airline industry, cruise lines employ approximately 10,000 Americans. The relatively low number of jobs is because most ships are registered in foreign countries and employ nationals of those countries.

Jobs can be either on board or ashore. On-board crew consist of the ship's crew and the hotel crew. For the ship's crew the captain is responsible for the operation of the ship and the safety of the crew and passengers. There are a number of officers who assist in this role. Graduation from officer training school and Coast Guard certification are required. Aspiring captains usually enter as third mate and get deck experience aboard ship.

Coast Guard experience is also required for engineers, who are responsible for the maintenance of the ship and are usually graduates of a marine academy. These qualifications are also required of the purser, the person responsible for the ship's paperwork and for handling money. The purser has a great deal of contact with ship passengers in the handling of traveler's checks, selling shore excursions, and assisting with customs and immigration requirements.

The hotel crew typically consists of a hotel manager, responsible for the operation of hotel services, various assistant managers, food and beverage managers, a cruise director and staff who arrange social and recreational activities, and a steward department responsible for the cleaning of cabins and the service of food and beverages.

People who aspire to management positions should have a college degree in hotel and restaurant management in combination with practical experience in various industry operations.

The easiest way to get into the cruise business is through a cruise line's office ashore. Entry-level positions are in reservations and sales. Sales representatives are involved in selling to others in the travel channel of distribution such as tour operators and retail travel agents. Advancement can occur to sales supervisor, fly/cruise specialist, or into marketing.

Motor coach/rail/car rental. Career opportunities in the motor coach, railroad, and car rental industries revolve around reservations and sales positions. There are also jobs in maintenance and driving.

With the decline of passenger rail transport in the United States, positions are limited. On the other hand, deregulation has added opportunities in the motor coach industry; car rental companies continue to grow and offer good career prospects.

Attractions

The vast majority of attractions operate in the private or the public sector. Private-sector attractions, such as theme parks and resorts, are in business to make a profit. Public-sector attractions, such as zoos, national parks, and museums, operate on a nonprofit basis.

Private sector. In theme parks, opportunities exist in staffing the food service, gift shop and rides. Many of these positions are seasonal, depending upon when the park is open. Often the way to a full-time position is by working as a seasonal employee.

A resort is both an attraction and a facility (see below). In addition to offering lodging and food and beverage outlets, the accent is on recreation. Instructors are required to teach the recreational activities offered at the resorts. Recreation programming or guest activity directors are needed to plan, design and organize the guest activity programs for those staying at the resort. This position is similar to the social director aboard ship. A degree in park and recreation administration is desirable for such a job.

Public sector. Many jobs in the public sector are civil service positions and require that the applicant pass appropriate civil service tests.

Attractions such as museums, parks and zoos offer two kinds of positions. First, there are highly technical jobs requiring specialized knowledge and degrees. In museums a curator is responsible for locating, acquiring, and exhibiting the items on display. Advanced degrees in fine arts may be called for. A zoo director may be required to have a degree in zoology while national park specialists have degrees in botany, biology or ecology. They should also have some knowledge of how to interpret to the visitor the nature of animals they work with in a way that is both educational and entertaining. This can be done through lectures, walks, exhibits and displays. In parks the most visible position of this kind is the park ranger. Duties range from being an interpreter to being a police officer. A college degree and several years of experience are necessary for this position.

The second type of job is one that is of a support nature. Museums need security people; zoos require people to care for and clean up after the animals.

Facilities

Lodging. A variety of jobs are available in the lodging industry. Within a hotel there are several departments, each with job opportunities. The major operating departments are in the front office, in housekeeping, and in food and beverage service. Typical entry-level positions would be baggage porter, desk clerk, room attendant, server or

kitchen helper. In the kitchen a specialized diploma in cooking would be required. While some managers rise to the top through on-the-job experience, the preferred route is through a specialized degree in hotel and restaurant administration followed by a period of working in the various departments.

Opportunities also exist in a number of support departments such as engineering, marketing, accounting and convention services. While chief engineers can work their way through the ranks, specialist degrees and training are preferred in the other areas mentioned.

Food and beverage. Restaurant jobs are broken down into front-of-the-house and back-of-the-house. The former involves contact with the customer; the latter does not. Entry-level positions are the same for food and beverage departments in hotels. Specialized diplomas are sought for cooks and chefs. A degree is preferred for management positions.

Destination marketing

The marketing of a destination is carried out by the staff of a chamber of commerce, convention and visitors bureau, state travel office, and, at the national level, a national tourist office.

Available jobs are mostly at the local level in a chamber of commerce or convention and visitors bureau. Most communities have one or the other, or both. A bureau can be staffed by as many as 60 people. Their job is to promote that particular destination. Much of the effort is spent on attracting conventions and groups. This requires a great deal of personal selling in addition to advertising and direct mail. A sales representative would be a typical entry-level position. The bureau's director would have a specialized degree in marketing or hospitality management.

State tourist offices average 30 employees. They are involved with planning and directing the marketing effort of the state to attract tourists. Jobs are available in research, advertising and public relations. Specialized degrees are desired. The state travel director may be a politically appointed position.

Few job opportunities exist at the US national level because of the lack of employees in the United States Travel and Tourism Administration (USTTA). The majority of USTTA employees are assigned overseas and work primarily with the travel trade in countries with potential to send tourists to the United States.

Channel marketing

Tour wholesalers. Job opportunities in tour wholesaling or operation exist in operations, in tour management, and in sales and promotion. In operations, entry-level positions are receptionist and operations clerk. Receptionists handle calls from retail travel agents interested in booking tours. Receptionists can advance to the position of reservation supervisor, responsible for hiring and training new receptionists, and handling group bookings and major accounts.

Operations clerks have little or no contact with retailers or the public. They handle the documentation for a tour, including passenger rosters, rooming lists and other passenger tour documents. The operations supervisor is responsible for all operations staff.

Depending on the size of the office, specialist positions may be available for group coordinators, accountants and costing specialists.

Negotiation of supplier prices and the creation of tours are handled either by the owner of a small company or the senior staff of a larger group.

The tour manager or director is responsible for the day-to-day operation of a tour. Opportunities exist for full- time and part-time managers. The latter might be teachers who wish to lead a group during summer vacation. The tour manager must have expertise in foreign languages to lead a group overseas. Most wholesalers hire European nationals to manage a tour in Europe. The National Tour Association offers certification for people who have been in the tour industry for at least two years.

The sales representative calls on retailers and makes presentations to groups to promote the tours offered by the wholesaler.

Retail travel agent. Specialized training is required to get into a retail travel agency. A number of schools offer hands-on training for people interested in such work. It is also possible to move into the operations of an agency from other areas, particularly airline reservations. Such people can transfer skills and knowledge gained in working for the airlines to an agency. Another entry-level position is that of outside sales representative. This job involves selling the agency's services to individuals and groups.

Travel agents or counselors can take advanced courses from the Institute of Certified Travel Agents (ICTA). Upon completion of the program they are designated a Certified Travel Counselor (CTC). The American Society of Travel Agents (ASTA) also awards a proficiency certificate upon successful completion of an examination.

Agents may rise within an agency, go on to own their own agency, or move into a related area of travel. One such area is corporate travel management. A corporate travel manager handles the travel budget and policy for a company. This person can either work with an outside travel agency or establish an in-house travel department.

Other. For those with specialized education and an interest in travel and tourism, opportunities exist in such areas as research for private consulting companies or public agencies, and travel writing and photography on a freelance or salaried basis.

Study questions

Discussion questions